Publisher's Corner

by Rev. Prof. Dr. Adv. Francis Nigel Lee

Queensland Presbyterian Theological College
Brisbane, Australia

"God is above the civil law but not lawless (Deus legibus solutus sed non exlex).... He is Himself the Living Law (Lex Vitalis), and the Law Who enlivens (Lex Animans)."
-- Calvin's Opera Omnia (Corpus Reformatorum), Brunswick 1863f ed., 5,23,53,67

The great Genevan Protestant, Rev. Prof. Dr. Jean Cauvin (or John Calvin), was almost unquestionably the godliest and also the most erudite lawyer-theologian since the Apostle Paul. After receiving his M.A. degree — Calvin engaged in advanced legal studies.
He did so, first under Pierre Taisan d’Etoile — the greatest forensic mind in France. He then studied further — under the celebrated Italian jurist, Andrea Alciati.

In 1531, Calvin secured his Doctorate in Law. He next studied Hebrew with Francois Vatable, Greek with Pierre Danes, and Holy Scripture with Lefevre d’Etaples. Our very famous French Reformer then went on to complete his Ph.D. degree (in Philosophy) — on Seneca's De Clementia.

Here we would examine Calvin's views — regarding the 'Law of Nature' and the 'Moral Law' and the 'Judicial Law.' For God declares through Jeremiah (9:24) — 'I am the Lord Who shows lovingkindness, judgment and righteousness upon the Earth.'

Calvin explains himself: "Assuredly the attributes which it is most necessary for us to know, are these three. Lovingkindness, on which alone our entire safety depends. Judgment, which is daily exercised on the wicked and awaits them in a severer form even for eternal destruction. Righteousness, by which the faithful are preserved and most benignly cherished." Indeed, Dr. Calvin even grounds these triple juridical principles of lovingkindness, judgment and righteousness — in the attributes of God Triune Himself, as their Ultimate Source.

Now the great Genevan saw it as "evident that the Law of God which we call 'Moral' — is nothing else than the testimony of Natural Law and of that conscience which God has engraven on the minds of men.... The whole of this equity of which we now speak, is prescribed in it. Hence – it alone ought to be the aim, the rule, and the end of all laws."

For this 'Moral Law of Nature' — argues John Calvin — proceeds "from the Source of rectitude Himself, and from the natural feelings implanted in us by Him." For "it flows from the Fountain of Nature itself, and is founded on the general principle of all laws."

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It is because the righteous God created man as His own image, that all men everywhere had and still have any concept of righteousness. As Calvin comments: "Paul says that we [Christians] are transformed into the image of God by the Gospel.... According to him, spiritual regeneration is nothing else than the restoration of the same image. Col. 3:10 and Eph. 4:23f.... He made this image to consist in 'righteousness'.... He [God] appointed man...lord of the world.... Adam was at first created in the image of God, so that he might reflect as in a mirror the righteousness of God.... You take righteousness, in general, as uprightness."

Referring to "the creation of man," Calvin observes that "it would little avail us to know how we were created — if we remained ignorant of the corruption and degradation of our nature in consequence of the fall. Yet at present, we confine ourselves to a consideration of our nature in its original integrity.... We shall afterwards see...how far mankind now is from the purity originally conferred on Adam.... We have ideas of rectitude, justice, and honesty.... The image of God extends to everything in which the nature of man surpasses that of all other species of animals.... At the beginning, the image of God was manifested by light of intellect, rectitude of heart, and the soundness of every part."

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Explains Calvin: "Since man is by nature a social animal [alias a gregarious 'en-spirit-ed creature'], he is disposed from natural instinct to cherish and preserve society.... So, we see that the minds of all men have impressions of civil order and honesty. Hence it is that every individual understands how human societies must be regulated by laws -- and [every individual] also is able to comprehend the principles of these laws. Hence the universal agreement [in Calvin's day] with regard to such subjects — both among nations and individuals — the seeds of them being implanted in the breasts of all....

"The truth of this fact is not affected by the wars and dissensions which immediately arise.... Some, such as thieves and robbers, would invert the rules of justice.... Others (a vice of most frequent occurrence) deem that to be unjust, which is elsewhere regarded as just — and (contrarywise) hold that to be praiseworthy, which is elsewhere forbidden.... Such persons...quarrel with what is clearly reasonable.... Quarrels of this latter kind do not destroy the primary idea of justice. For while men dispute with each other as to the particular enactments — their ideas of equity agree in substance....

"Some principle of civil order, is impressed on all.... No man is devoid of the light of reason.... Its principle is naturally implanted in the human mind.... These proofs openly attest the fact of an universal reason and intelligence naturally implanted.... The Spirit of God is the only fountain of truth. We will be careful, as we would avoid offering insult to Him, not to reject or contemn truth, wherever it appears. In despising the gifts, we insult the Giver."
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Now Natural Law continues — in a somewhat sin-obscured way — even after man's fall into sin. This, of course, is only because the Lord God keeps on revealing it to all sinners everywhere — in spite of their ongoing depravity.

Writing about unregenerate Pagans, the Apostle Paul truly declares that "the wrath of God keeps on being revealed from heaven upon all ungodliness and unrighteousness of [those] men who keep on holding down the truth in unrighteousness.... For God has manifested...what is knowable about God to them. For His invisible things — being understood even from the creation of the world through that which has been made — keep on being perceived. Consequently, they [the Pagans] are inexcusable. Because, having known God, they did not glorify Him as God. Neither were they thankful."

Here, Calvin comments: "Although the structure of the world and the most splendid ordering of the elements ought to have induced man to glorify God -- yet there are none who discharge their duty.... Some interpreters distinguish between ungodliness and unrighteousness -- maintaining that ungodliness refers to the profanation of the worship of God, and unrighteousness to a want of justice to men.... To 'hold down' the truth, is to suppress or obscure it. Hence, they are accused of theft. 'In unrighteousness' is a Hebrew phrase, and means unjustly.

"Man was formed to be a spectator of the created world.... He was endowed with eyes for the purpose of his being led to God Himself, the Author of the world.... This clearly proves how much men gain from this demonstration of the existence of God — viz. an utter incapacity to bring any defence to prevent them from being justly accused before the judgment-seat of God.... No conception of God can be formed without including His eternity, power, wisdom, goodness, truth, righteousness, and mercy.... His justice is evident in His governing of the world, because He punishes the guilty and defends the innocent.... Those, therefore, who have formed a conception of God — ought to give Him the praise due to His eternity, wisdom, goodness, and justice."
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Paul next asserts that men have knowingly and deliberately turned away — and keep on turning away — from original righteousness. Wilfully they have fallen into idolatry, lesbianism, sodomy, murder and other capital crimes — all of which he says "are worthy of death."

Comments Dr. Calvin: "It makes no difference that they were not all involved in such vicious corruption.... Although all men are not thieves, murderers or adulterers — yet there are none who are not to be found corrupted by some vice or another.... They had not pursued the knowledge of God with the attention which they ought to have displayed — but, on the contrary, had deliberately turned their thoughts away from God.... By a perverted choice, they had preferred their own vanities — to God.

"Though every vice may not appear in each individual, yet all men are conscious of some wrong conduct, so that everyone can be accused of obvious depravity for his own part.... Men bound themselves — without reflection to those crimes which common sense ought to have despised.... Unrighteousness means the violation of human justice, when each does not receive his due.... Wickedness...means acts of maliciousness or unrestrained licence.... Maliciousness is the depravity and perversity of mind which strives to do harm to our neighbour.... The word strife includes quarrels, fighting, and sedition."

The Apostle Paul consequently continues: "Whenever the Gentiles [alias the Pagans], who do not have the Law [of Moses], by nature do the things contained in the Law — these [Gentiles], not having The Law, are a law for themselves. They show 'the work of The Law' written in their hearts — their conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts meantime accusing or else excusing one another."
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Here, Calvin comments that "ignorance is offered in vain as an excuse by the Gentiles — since they declare by their own deeds that they do have some rule of righteousness. There is no nation so opposed to everything that is human, that it does not keep within the confines of some laws....

“All nations are disposed to make laws...which are implanted by nature in the hearts of men.... The Gentiles had the natural light of righteousness, which supplied the place of The Law by which the Jews are taught....

"All the Gentiles alike institute religious rites; make laws to punish adultery, theft, and murder; and commend good faith in commercial transactions and contracts. In this way, they demonstrate their acknowledgment that God is to be worshipped; that adultery, theft and murder are evils; and that honesty is to be esteemed.... There is, therefore, a certain natural knowledge of The Law which states that one action is good and worthy of being followed — while another is to be shunned with horror."

Calvin asks: "Can we deny that truth must have beamed on those ancient lawgivers who arranged civil order and discipline with so much equity? ... Let us not forget that there are most excellent blessings which the Divine Spirit dispenses to whom He will, for the common benefit of mankind.... One of the essential properties of our nature, is reason.... Some excel in acuteness, and some in judgment....

“In a common nature, the grace of God is specially displayed.... Each individual is brought under particular influences, according to his calling.... The Spirit of the Lord is said to have come upon those whom He called to govern.... Judges 6:34."

States Calvin: "If the Gentiles have the righteousness of The Law naturally engraven on their minds — we certainly cannot say they are altogether blind as to the Rule of Life! Nothing indeed is more common — than for man to be sufficiently instructed in a right course of conduct by Natural Law, of which the Apostle here speaks.... The end of Natural Law, therefore, is to render man inexcusable."

‘Natural Law’ -- says Calvin -- thus "may be not improperly defined: 'the judgment of conscience distinguishing sufficiently between just and unjust'.... By convicting men on their own testimony, [it keeps on] depriving them of all pretext for ignorance."
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Dr. Calvin further sees the Law of Nature — in universal or widescale human practice. St. Paul asks: "Does not even nature (phusis) teach you that if a man has long hair, it is a dishonour to him; but that if a woman has long hair, it is a glory to her?" I Cor. 11:5-14.

Calvin here comments that "bare-headedness is unbecoming in women. Nature itself holds it in horror.... A woman with her head shaved [bare], is a loathsome — indeed an unnatural — sight.... The woman is given her hair as a natural covering.... Her hair, being her natural covering..., is needed....

"Paul again sets nature before them [the Corinthians] as the teacher of what is proper.... He means by 'natural' what was accepted by common consent..., certainly as far as the Greeks were concerned.... The Greeks did not consider it very manly to have long hair, branding those who had it as effeminate. Paul considered that their custom, accepted in his own day, was in conformity with nature." [Compare the further reference to I Cor. 11:13-14 in the discussion on "the light of nature" in the later Calvin-istic Westminster Confession of Faith 1:6o.]
Yet Calvin also teaches that the pre-fall 'light of nature' and its 'Natural Law' are, after sin, clearly discerned only in the light of the infallible Holy Scriptures. "Philosophers," explains Calvin — when contrasting "nature" with "Scripture" — "can only tell us to live agreeably to nature." Scripture, however, derives its exhortations from God as the True Source. Mal. 1:6; Eph. 5:1; I Jh. 3:1,3; Eph. 5:26; Rom. 6:1-4; I Cor. 6:11; I Pet. 1:15,19; I Cor. 6:15; Jh. 15:3; Eph. 5:2-3; Col. 3:1-2; I Cor. 3:16; 6:17; II Cor. 6:16; I Th. 5:23....

Scripture, says Calvin, "not only enjoins us to regulate our lives with a view to God its Author -- to Whom it belongs. But, after showing us that we have degenerated from our True Origin — viz. the Law of our Creator — it adds that Christ, through Whom we have returned to favour with God, is set before us as a model — the image of which, our lives should express."
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Now Holy Scripture teaches that — after the Great Flood — God introduced human government and official punishments for the crimes of fallen man. "Surely, I will requite the blood of your lives! At the hand of every beast I will requite it — and at the hand of man. At the hand of every man's brother, I will requite the life of man. Whosoever sheds a man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed. For God made man in His image."

Comments Calvin: "God so highly estimates our life, that He will not suffer murder to go unavenged.... They are deceived, in my judgment, who think that a political law simply for the punishment of homicides is here intended. Truly, I do not deny that the punishment which the laws ordain and which the judges execute — are founded on this divine sentence. But I say that the words are more comprehensive” than to include only murder, and in fact extend to all “unjust acts.”

“God [indeed] sends executioners.... God so threatens and denounces vengeance against the murderer ---- that He even arms the magistrate with the sword for the avenging of slaughter, in order that the blood of men may not be shed with impunity.

"God declares that He is not rashly and for no purpose thus solicitous respecting human life. Men are indeed unworthy of God's care, if respect be had only to themselves. But since they bear the image of God engraven on them, He deems Himself violated in their person.... No one can be injurious to his brother, without wounding [or insulting] God Himself.... He again turns His discourse to Noah and his sons.... 'You see that I am intent upon cherishing and preserving mankind; do you therefore also attend to it!' .... He deters them from murder, and from unjust acts of violence."
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Of course, the above would require a whole system of political government — as well as of graded law courts. That is why God told Moses — through his father-in-law the priest Jethro — thus to delegate these functions.

Asked Jethro: "Why are you sitting alone — and all the people standing near you, from morning to evening?" Moses replied: "Because the people are coming to me, in order to inquire from God. When they have a case, they come to me — and I judge between one and another.... I make known to them God's statutes and laws."

So Jethro advised Moses: "Provide from among all the people able men who fear God; men of truth who hate covetousness. Place such men over them — to be rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens. And let them judge the people at all times.... Every great case they shall bring to you; but every small case, they shall judge!"

Here Calvin comments: "This is the object of political government.... God's tribunal should be erected on earth, wherein He may exercise the judge's office.... Judges and magistrates should not arrogate to themselves a power uncontrolled by any laws, nor allow themselves to decide anything arbitrarily or wantonly — nor, in a word, assume to themselves what belongs to God. Then and then only will magistrates acquit themselves properly — when they remember that they are the representatives of God.

"'You shall choose [from the people], and take out the most worthy' — so that such an office [of judge] be not entrusted rashly to anyone that offers.... Among a free people..., the judges should not be chosen for their wealth or rank — but for their superiority in virtue.... Four qualifications must principally be regarded in the appointment of judges, viz.: ability in business; the fear of God; integrity; and the contempt of riches....

'Brave men' (,ansheey chaayil)...designates strenuous and courageous persons.... [Moses] adds 'piety'.... 'Truth' is opposed not only to deception and gross falsehood — but to popularity-hunting, flattering promises, and other crooked arts which tend to corrupt justice.... 'Hatred of covetousness' is demanded — because nothing is more antagonistic to justice, than eagerness for gain.... Since snares are so constantly set for judges by the offers of pecuniary advantage — they would not be duly fortified against this mode of corruption, unless they earnestly detested avarice."
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On a parallel passage, John Calvin comments further: "Those who were to preside in judgment, were not appointed only by the will of Moses — but elected by the votes of the people. And this is the most desirable kind of liberty....

“We should not be compelled to obey every person who may be put tyrannically over our heads.... No one should rule, except he be approved of by us.” Thus, only popularly elected governments should rule!

Hence "Moses recounts that he awaited the consent of the people, and that nothing was attempted which did not please them.... He does not here [in Deut. 1] mention the same virtues as in Exod. 18, but only distinguishes the judges by three qualifications.... They should be wise; and [have] understanding; and [be] experienced....

“They should possess acuteness of intellect and prudence, confirmed by experience and practice. For neither the greatest probity nor diligence would be sufficient for the office of ruler — apart from skill and sagacity...endued with sound judgment and discretion.... Thus, then ---- experience and acquaintance with business is required in judges; because none but the practised are competent for the management of business.

"As far as possible, judges should be restrained by fixed law — lest, being left free, they should be swayed this way or that by favour or ill will.... Wherever there is a sufficient capacity of intellect, equity and rectitude will prevail — unless [how sadl!] respect to persons influences the judge.... It very often happens that those who are otherwise just and disposed to study what is equitable and right, are made to swerve through fear of the threats of the powerful — and dare not manfully encounter their ill will. Moses therefore requires magnanimity in judges — so that they may not hesitate to bring upon themselves the hatred of any, in their defence of a good cause.

"He says that they are to be afraid of no mortal man — because the judgment is God's.... How absurd it is, to turn from the right course — out of the fear of man. Because thus the majesty of God is prostituted and exposed to scorn.... This honour must be paid to God Whose representatives they are.... They should look upon all men as beneath them, and restrain the audacity of the wicked with such inflexible magnanimity that God alone may have the pre-eminence. The same is the object of Jehoshaphat's words: 'Take heed what you do! For you are not judging for man, but for the Lord!' II Chr. 19:6.

"If this were thoroughly impressed upon the minds both of magistrates and pastors, they would not vacillate so often.... Relying on God's aid, they would stand firmly against all the terrors by which they are so pitifully agitated. Therefore, let all those who are called to any public office, sustain themselves by this doctrine — that they are doing God's work, Who is well able to keep them safe from the violence as well as the craftiness of the whole world. Yet at the same time we are taught by these words that all posts of command are sacred to God, so that whosoever are called to them should reverently and diligently serve God — and ever reflect that His is the dominion, whereof they are the ministers."

Now the Mosaic judges were to punish crime in terms of the 'law of restitution' alias the lex talionis: "eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot," etc. In terms of "the lex talionis," comments Calvin, "a just proportion is to be observed....

“The amount of punishment is to be equally regulated — whether as to a tooth, or an eye, or life itself — so that the compensation should correspond with the injury done.... For the purpose of preventing all violence, a compensation is to be paid — in proportion to the injury.
"A 'delinquency' (delictum) differs from a 'crime'.... It was unlawful to covenant with murderers for the remission of their punishment. Still, the judges were permitted, on their hearing of the case, to mitigate it — if a man were excused by his unconsciousness or inadvertency. This then...permits the judges to distinguish between the nature of offences — viz. that if they discover a man not to be worthy of death, they should still punish his negligence by a pecuniary fine." For involuntary manslaughter, like unintended culpable miscarriage, is not the capital crime of premeditated murder.

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God also made provision for theocratic kings to be appointed. They were to point His people to Christ their King. Thus, through Moses, God told the Israelites: "When you have come to the land which the Lord your God is giving you, and when you shall take possession of it and dwell there..., you shall in every way appoint as king over you the one whom the Lord your God shall choose.... You may not appoint a stranger.... He shall not multiply horses for himself.... Nor shall he multiply wives for himself. Neither shall he greatly multiply silver and gold for himself.... He shall write a copy of this Law for himself...and he shall read therein all the days of his life — so that he may learn to fear the Lord his God to keep all the words of this Law."
Here Calvin comments: "The power of kings is here put beneath that of God.... Kings themselves are consecrated unto obedience to Him — lest the people should ever turn to ungodliness.... It was not without a cause that a special law was enacted with respect to kings, because nothing is more likely — than that earthly pomps should draw men away from piety.... As long as the judges were in power, their different form of government separated the Jews from heathen nations. All the surrounding neighbours, were subject to kings.

"God always retained the pre-eminence, whilst He raised up judges from amongst the people. But when they began to choose kings for themselves, they were so mixed up with the Gentiles that it was easy for them to fall into other corruptions. For the very similarity (of their governments) united them more closely. Therefore, it is expressly said, 'When you shall set a king over yourself.' God signifies that the example of the nations would be an evil snare to them, that they should desire to have a king.... Their rebellion is here indirectly condemned, when God foretells that they would wantonly shake off their yoke — as indeed actually took place when they rejected Samuel and tumultuously required a king.

"But the question arises, how these two things can be reconciled — that kings should reign over them from the lust or foolish desire of the people; and yet that the kingdom was the chief glory of the people, a special pledge of God's favour, and consequently of their welfare and full felicity? The prophecy of Jacob is well known, 'The sceptre shall not depart from Judah — until Shiloh come.' Gen. 49:10. Whence it appears that a King was promised to the children of Abraham — as an inestimable blessing.... It was God's design, from the beginning to set up David — as a type of Christ.

"God maintains His own supremacy in the appointment of a king, and does not consign the matter to the people's own suffrages — that thus He may chastise their audacity in demanding a king in accordance with a hasty impulse. Secondly, He commands that he should be taken from the people themselves, and excludes foreigners — because, if they had been admitted, a door was opened to apostasy.... God would not suffer a king to be sought elsewhere but from the bosom of His Church — in order that he [the king] might cherish and maintain that pure worship which he had imbibed from his childhood."
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"But," continues Calvin, such a king "shall not multiply horses.' The royal power is here circumscribed within certain limits — lest it should exalt itself too much in reliance on the glory of its dignity.... We know how insatiable are the desires of kings, inasmuch as they imagine that all things are lawful to them. Therefore, although the royal dignity may be splendid, God would not have it to be the pretext of unrestrained power but restricts and limits it to legal bounds.... He should not collect for himself a multitude of horses.... God condemns an immoderate number of horses, from the consequences which might ensue.... It might excite the minds of the kings rashly to undertake expeditions against the Egyptians.... They should be content with their own boundaries....

"Polygamy at that time had generally prevailed, so that the very humblest of the people violated the marriage vow with impunity.... Therefore it was necessary that the kings should be bound with closer restrictions — lest by their example they should give greater countenance to incontinency.... Besides, the people would have been subjected to great expense on their account — since such is the ambition of women, that they would all have desired to receive royal treatment and would have even vied with each other in finery.... Kings were not to multiply wives to themselves, lest their heart should turn away from what was right — as was the case with Solomon.... From being too devoted to his wives and being deceived by the snares of women, he fell into idolatry.

"God does not in vain enjoin — that they should constantly persevere in their duty.... He forbids kings to heap up treasures — because it cannot be done without rapine and violent exactions.... At the same time — wealth encourages them audaciously to undertake unjust wars; incites them to gross dissipation; and at length hurries them forward to tyrannical excesses.... God would have kings beware, lest in their pursuit of riches they should exhaust the blood of the people — and lest they should lavish their ill-gotten money in superfluous expenses and be extravagant with what belongs to others.

"It would not be enough to correct their errors, unless kings were also instructed in the fear of God and properly taught their duty.... Therefore a system of discipline is added, whereby it was profitable for them to be grounded in the study of religion and justice.... They should take the Law...to be the rule of all their actions....

“In order that kings might be more assiduously attentive in reading it — God would have a copy[of His Law] peculiarly dedicated to their use...., that kings might know that they required greater wisdom and counsel for ruling the people than private persons.... It was as if God deposited this treasure with the king. He then enjoins that they should exercise themselves in the doctrine of the Law — through the whole course of their lives.

"The object of their reading, is subjoined. First of all, in general, that they may learn to fear God and keep His statutes.... Second, lest being lifted up with pride and vanity they should despise and oppress their brethren.... The word 'brethren' is used designedly, lest they should imagine that the law of brotherhood was abolished, because they were set over the whole people.... They should study to cherish all, as members of themselves."

The Kingdom of Ancient Israel, then, would point forward to Christ's Kingdom — as Isaiah later predicted. For, as Calvin commented on that prediction: "Christ will be a King 'to order and establish His Kingdom with judgment and with righteousness'... Justice is the best guardian of kingdoms and governments.... The Kingdom of Christ will be the model of the best kind of government." Now that Christ's Kingdom has come, "God dwells in the Church.... He is there worshipped — and acknowledged as Judge, Lawgiver, and King."

Almost between the Old and the New Testaments, Daniel too predicted this. Then, says Calvin, the worldly kingdoms would be "broken up by Christ according to this dream of King Nebuchadnezzar.... The dream was presented to King Nebuchadnezzar, so that he might understand all future events to the renovation of the world." Even Babylon's king was to extol Jehovah!

Prayed Calvin:32 "May Almighty God grant...that we may raise our eyes upwards, and consider how much power You have conferred upon Your only-begotten Son! Grant also, that He may rule and govern us by the might of His Spirit...and compel the whole world to promote our salvation...until at length we enjoy the fruit of the victory which You have promised."
Calvin comments further: "As to the reign of Christ — He cannot be deprived of the Empire conferred upon Him. Nor can we who are His members lose the Kingdom of which He has made us partakers. Christ, therefore, both in Himself and His members, reigns without any danger of change — because He always remains safe and secure in His Own Person.... Christ's Kingdom should destroy all the earthly kingdoms of which Daniel had previously spoken.... Whatever is adverse to the only-begotten Son of God, must necessarily perish and utterly vanish away. A Prophet exhorts all the kings of the earth to kiss the Son (Ps. 2:12)" — before His wrath is kindled but a little.

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Hence, as John Calvin comments, even King "Nebuchadnezzar — after God had often chastised him — yielded at length.... Without the slightest doubt, Daniel recited...to show the king...to confess the God of Israel to be the only God — and to bear witness to this among all people under his sway.... Daniel had no other object or purpose...than to show the fruit of conversion in King Nebuchadnezzar.... Without doubt, King Nebuchadnezzar bore witness to his repentance — when he celebrated the God of Israel among all people, and when he proclaimed a punishment to all who spoke reproachfully against God.

"Augustine cites this testimony...and shows how ashamed Christian princes ought to be of their slothfulness, if they are indulgent to heretics and blasphemers — and do not vindicate God's glory by lawful punishment. Since Nebuchadnezzar...promulgated this decree...it ought to be sufficient for men of moderate and quiet tastes to know how King Nebuchadnezzar's edict was praised by the approval of the Holy Spirit.... It follows that kings are bound to defend the worship of God, and to execute vengeance upon those who profanely despise it...and on those who endeavour...to adulterate the true doctrine by their errors....

"Without doubt, Nebuchadnezzar wished to excite his subjects to the attentive perusal of this edict and to the acknowledgment of its value — and thus to subject themselves to the true and only God.... Nebuchadnezzar confessed Israel's God to be Most High.... He celebrates indeed, with magnificence, the glory of the Supreme God. But this is not sufficient — without abolishing all superstitions and promoting that religion alone which is prescribed by the Word of God, and [without] causing His pure and perfect worship to flourish."

As Nebuchadnezzar himself recorded: "Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise and extol and honour the King of heaven — all of Whose works are truth, and His ways judgment.... Those that walk in pride, He is able to abase."

Comments Calvin: "Nebuchadnezzar here confesses God to be just and true in all His works without any exception — notwithstanding His Own severe chastisements. This confession is not feigned. For he necessarily utters what he says, from the lowest depths of his heart.... He does not attribute to God a tyranny free from all law.... He condemns himself of pride, directly afterwards. Hence, he does not hesitate to expose his [own] disgrace before mankind — so that God may be glorified. And this is the true method of praising God."

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So different to Nebuchadnezzar were the later ungodly Caesars in the Pre-Constantinian Empire of Ancient Rome. Yet there too, Christ Himself nevertheless enjoined people to give back or to return alias "to render to Caesar — those things which are Caesar's!
As Calvin here comments: "Christ...lays down a clear distinction between spiritual and civil government — in order to inform us that outward subjection [even to pagan rulers] does not prevent us from having within us a conscience free in the sight of God. For Christ intended to refute the error of those who did not think that they would be the people of God — unless they were free from every yoke of human authority.... Christ declares that it is no violation of God’s authority...if, in respect of outward government, the Jews obey the Romans."

It is, continues Calvin, as if Christ had told the Jews: "You are exceedingly afraid lest — if tribute be paid to the Romans — the honour of God may be infringed! But you ought rather to take care to yield to God that service which He demands from you — and, at the same time, to render [or to 'give back'] to men what is their due."
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This is why Jesus warned His followers to uphold law and order, even during the pagan Roman occupation of His own country of Judea. Said He: "Do not think I have come to demolish the Law.... I have not come to demolish, but to finish constructing.... Not one jot or a single point shall pass from the Law.... Whosoever then shall break one of the least of these Commandments and teach men so — shall be called 'the least' as regards the Kingdom of heaven....

"Whosoever shall kill, shall be in danger of judgment.... Whoever shall say to his brother 'Raca!' [or 'you worthless lout!'], shall be in danger of the Council.... Be quick to reach agreement with your legal adversary [to whom you owe money]...., lest the adversary hands you over to the judge and the judge hands you over to the peace officer and you be thrown into prison! Truly, I tell you, you will no way get out from there — till you have paid back[!] the last cent.... If anybody wants to sue you at law and take away your coat — let him [thereafter] have your cloak too. And whoever legally compels you to go a mile — go two with him!"
* * * * * * *
Here Calvin comments: "We must not imagine that the coming of Christ has freed us from the authority of the Law! For it is the Eternal Rule of a devout and holy life.... Christ here speaks expressly of the 'Commandments of Life' or the Ten Words, which all the children of God ought to take as the Rule of their life.... God, restoring the world by the hand of His Son, has completely established His Kingdom.... The 'Kingdom of heaven' means the renovation of the Church — or the prosperous condition of the Church such as was then beginning to appear, by the preaching of the Gospel....

"To meet all hatred, enmity, debates and acts of injustice, Christ reproves that obstinacy which is the source of these evils and enjoins His own people to cultivate moderation...so that, by such an act of justice, they may purchase for themselves peace and friendship.... It is scarcely possible but that differences will sometimes happen — so Christ points out the remedy by which they may immediately be settled.... It is usually advantageous to us to come to an early agreement with adversaries.... For Christ makes no allowance that others may free a debtor by satisfying for him — but He expressly demands from each person the payment of what he owes....

"Christ now glances at another kind of annoyance.... That is when wicked men torment us with law-suits. He commands us, even on such an occasion, to be so patient and submissive that when our 'coat' has been 'taken away' [by due process of law] — we shall be prepared [if necessary] to give up 'our cloak also.'

“None but a fool will stand upon the words so as to maintain that we must yield to our opponents what they demand before coming into a court of law.... Such compliance would more strongly inflame the minds of wicked men to robbery and extortion.... Nothing was farther from the design of Christ!

"What then is meant by 'giving the cloak to him' who endeavours, on the ground of a legal claim, to take away our coat? If a man, oppressed by an unjust decision, loses what is his own and yet is prepared...to part with the remainder — he deserves not less to be commended for patience than the man who allows himself to be twice robbed before coming into court....
"We conclude that Christians are not entirely prohibited from engaging in law-suits, provided they have a just defence to offer.... They do not surrender their goods as a prey! Yet they do not depart from this doctrine of Christ — which exhorts us to bear patiently 'the despoiling of our goods.' Heb. 10:34.... But as it is possible for a man to defend a just cause with a view to the public advantage, we have no right to condemn the thing [of litigation] in itself."

“Paul does not disapprove of law-suits on the ground that it is wrong in itself to uphold a good case by having recourse to a magistrate.... Since retribution belongs to the magistrate — by God's appointment — those who seek its aid, are not irresponsibly taking vengeance into their own hands, but are having recourse to God as avenger....
* * * * * * *
Chiefly by way of evangelisation, yet also to some extent in ways such as the above, ultimately even the Pagan Roman Empire would inevitably become christianised. This would be accomplished through the ongoing witness of the members of the earthly church of the Ascended Christ — equipped as they were and are with the power of His outpoured and indwelling Spirit.

As Daniel (7:9-27) had predicted: "Thrones were cast down, and the Ancient of days did sit.... I saw...the Son of man come with the clouds of heaven...[yet not from but] to the Ancient of days” — thus, not at the time of Christ’s Final Coming but rather at and from the time of His Ascension into heaven. Then, “there was given Him [to the Son of man] dominion and glory and a Kingdom — so that all people, nations and languages should serve Him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away."

As a result, continued Daniel, "the saints of the Most High shall take the Kingdom — and possess the Kingdom for ever, even for ever and ever!" True, the fourth kingdom [of Pagan Rome] and the later "stout horn" of the Antichrist Romish Papacy would still make "war against the saints [or earthly Christians] — and prevail...until the Ancient of days came" to grant them relief. Cf. Dan. 12:6-11f and Rev. 13:1 to 14:5. Then, however, "judgment" or political rule would be "given to the saints of the Most High — when the time came for the saints to take possession of the kingdom" of Rome. Cf. II Th. 2:3-8 and Rev. 14:6 to 18:4f.
Daniel explained that "the fourth beast shall be the fourth kingdom upon the earth.... Out of this kingdom, ten kings shall arise" — viz. after the collapse of the Roman Empire during the fifth century A.D. "Then another [the Romish Papacy] shall rise after them, and he shall be diverse from the first...and shall speak great words against the Most High and shall wear out the saints of the Most High and think to change times and laws. And they shall be given into his hand — until a time and [two] times and the dividing [or half] of a time.

"But the judgment shall sit, and they shall take away his dominion.... And the kingdom and dominion and the greatness of the kingdom under the whole heaven shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most High Whose Kingdom is an everlasting Kingdom. And all dominions shall serve and obey Him."
* * * * * * *
On this ultimate conquest by the Ascended Christ's earthly saints — their conquest of Pagan Rome and even of the subsequent Romish Papacy — Calvin comments on Daniel's predictions that "the subject treated, is the first coming of Christ. It ought not to be restricted to the thirty-three years of His sojourn in the world, but it embraces His Ascension and that preaching of the Gospel which ushered in His Kingdom.... Daniel appropriately relates how God was seated, when the first advent of Christ is depicted....

"After Daniel has narrated how he saw God on the throne of judgment...., he now adds the second part of the vision.... 'The Son of man appeared in the clouds.' Doubtless this is to be understood of Christ... It afterwards follows 'He came to the Ancient of days.'
“This ought to be explained of Christ's Ascension.... He then commenced His reign, as we see in numberless passages of Scripture.... He really appeared...'in the clouds'...when He ascended to heaven.” Acts 1:8-11.

Thereafter — Calvin continues, commenting on Daniel's predictions about Christ — “He now arrives at the Ancient of days.” This occurred after “He ascends to heaven....
“Christ truly ascended into heaven.... We ought, clearly, to weigh the purpose of His doing so.... Christ left the world and ascended to the Father — first, to subdue all powers to Himself...; next, to restrain the devil, and to protect and preserve the Church....
"The prophet [Daniel] adds 'power was given to Him'.... We will not say it was bestowed with relation to His being [or essence] — of being called God. It was given to Him as Mediator — as God manifest in flesh, and with respect to His human nature.... For this reason, therefore, 'all power, honour and kingdom' was given to Christ" — so "'that all nations, people and tongues should serve Him'.... The events which the prophet here narrates, are not yet complete....
"This vision suits very well with many assertions of Christ — where He bears witness to the power given Him by the Father. Matt. 28:18.... He does not here [in Dan. 7:14] speak of the last judgment — but is only teaching us the object of His Ascension to heaven.... When the prophet says Christ's dominion is eternal, he doubtless signifies the constant endurance of His Monarchy — even to the end of the world....

"'Judgment was given to the saints' — [even] at the commencement of the gospel era.... [But then,] domestic enemies arose.... [Now at that time,] the Kingdom of Christ never flourished in the world.... But God wished to propose this solace to His prophet [Daniel] — by showing him the future reputation of the Church and its elevation to some degree of honour, after emerging from obscurity."
* * * * * * *
Calvin next explains Daniel's predictions regarding the Roman Empire — during the continuance of which Christ ascended into heaven. First, he explains the strength of Pagan Rome. But then, he goes on to describe how Christ's Empire gradually would demolish it.
Comments Calvin: "The fourth beast signifies 'a fourth kingdom...which shall differ from all the kingdoms' [before it].... The Roman Empire we know...to have been [much] more extensive and powerful than the other monarchies.... Miserably and cruelly, the Church has been harassed by many tyrants.... We shall find the Church to have been much more heavily afflicted after Christ's advent, and to have been opposed by the Caesars in open warfare.... The Caesars became more and more stirred up to carry on war against the elect, and to oppress the Church....

"It was God...Who delivered into the hands of that [Pagan Roman] king the saints...and the institutions of piety — allowing him to pour out promiscuously human blood; to violate every national right; and to ruin as far as possible all religion.... These calamities should come to an end.... [Yet] 'for a time and times and the division of a time'...license would be given to the tyrants and enemies of the Church to pervert all things, to despise God, and set aside all justice....

"[However,] he says also, 'judgment shall then sit.' That is, God shall again restore to order.... The world shall feel His Providence ruling over the earth and the human race.... The restoration is here called a 'sitting in judgment' — when the Roman Empire was blotted out....
"These two things, then, are mutually in accordance — namely the slaying of the fourth beast; and the giving of the kingdom and authority to the people of the saints. This does not seem to have been accomplished yet!" Thus wrote Calvin, in 1561.
* * * * * * *
Calvin thus summarizes Daniel seven. "Let us now return to the passage. Daniel first of all says, 'a kingdom and power and extensive dominion shall be given to the people of the holy ones.' This was partially fulfilled when the Gospel emerged from persecution.... Daniel or the angel does not predict here occurrences connected with the [second] advent of Christ as Judge of the world, but with the first preaching and promulgation of the Gospel and the celebration of the Name of Christ. But this does not prevent him from drawing a magnificent picture of Christ's reign, and embracing its final completion....

"When the preaching of the Gospel commenced, no one would have thought its success could have been so great.... In consequence of the intimate union between Christ and His Church the peculiar attribute of Christ Himself is often transferred to His body [the Church].... God's royal sceptre went forth from Jerusalem, and shone far and wide — while the Lord was extending His Hand and His Authority....

"All nations shall come — all kings shall serve! At that [previous] time, no king existed who was not professedly an enemy of true piety, and who did not desire the abolition of the very name of His Law. [Yet] the prophets enlarge thus, magnificently, on the future restoration of this Kingdom [Ps. 2:8-12; Isa. 2:2f; Zech. 9:9f; etc.]....

“ ‘All powers’— says he [Daniel] — 'shall serve and obey Him!' That is, no power shall so boast in its loftiness — as not willingly to become subject to the Church.... At present...they tread it most ignominiously under foot.... Then, they [‘all powers’] shall be subject to it"-- namely to “the Church” alias the visible Kingdom of God on Earth.

Gradually, however, even the Papacy would ultimately be destroyed. That would and shall be achieved by the powerful and progressive Protestant preaching of the Word of God — and by the expansion of Protestant institutions, such as Biblical legal systems.

“This calamity was neither to be introduced by one man, nor to terminate in one man.... II Thess. 2:3; Dan. 7:9. Moreover, when the mark by which he [Paul] distinguishes Antichrist is that he would rob God of His honour and take it to himself..., it is certain that the Roman Pontiff has impudently transferred to himself the most peculiar properties of God and Christ. There cannot be a doubt that he is the leader and standard-bearer of an impious and abominable kingdom.”
* * * * * * *
Calvin comments further: "Anyone who has learned from Scripture what are the things that belong particularly to God and who on the other hand considers well what the Pope usurps for himself, will not have much difficulty in recognizing Antichrist.... Scripture declares that God is the only Lawgiver.... It represents Him also as the Author of all holy observances....
“There is not one of these things which the Pope [of Rome] does not claim to be his own prerogative! He boasts that it is his right to bind men's consciences with such laws as he pleases....

The 400 A.D. Chrysostom, continues Dr. Calvin, "explains why the state of the Roman Empire [then] delayed the revelation [or rather the manifestation] of Antichrist.... So Antichrist [held John Chrysostom] was about to seize for himself the vacant rule of the Roman Empire." For the Roman Empire successively fell to the northern hordes, from 410 A.D. onwards.
Prior to Chrysostom, adds Calvin himself, "the power of the Roman Empire prevented the rise of Antichrist.... Satan had not yet amassed such strength that Antichrist could openly oppress the Church.... The name 'Antichrist' does not [says Calvin] designate a single individual, but a single kingdom which extends throughout many generations....

"[Yet] the reign of Antichrist will be temporary.... He [the Apostle Paul] had predicted the destruction of the reign of Antichrist, and [Paul] now describes the manner of his destruction.
“He will be annihilated by the Word of the Lord.... Paul does not think that Christ will accomplish this in a single moment....

"Meantime, Christ will scatter the darkness in which Antichrist will reign, by the rays which He will emit.... This victory of the Word will therefore be seen in the world. For 'the Breath of His Mouth' [alias 'the Spirit of the Word of God'] means simply His Word, as in Isa. 11:4 — the passage to which Paul appears to be alluding....

"True and sound doctrine...is represented as being sufficient to end all ungodliness -- and as destined at all times to be victorious over all the devices of Satan. It ‘true and[sound doctrine’] is also a commendation, when a little further on the preaching of this doctrine is referred to as Christ's coming to us!" II Th. 2:8 cf. 3:1.

Before the rise of Antichrist — and even today — whenever any unbelieving rulers asked or ask God's people to do that which is wrong, the latter had (and still have) no option but to refuse. Hence, when the Jewish Sanhedrin ordered the Apostles to speak no more in the Name of Jesus — the latter disregarded that prohibition. "Peter and John answered and said to them, 'You must judge whether it is right in the sight of God to hearken to you rather than to God. For we cannot but keep on speaking about the things which we saw and heard!'"

Comments Calvin: "Let us remember to whom they make this answer. For this Council did undoubtedly represent the Church. Yet because they [the Members of the Sanhedrin] abuse their authority, the Apostles say they [the Members of the Sanhedrin] are not to be obeyed....

“They [Christ’s Apostles] set against their [the Members of the Sanhedrin's] decrees — the authority of God. This would be inappropriate, were it not that those who in other respects were ordinary Pastors of the Church — were at the same time enemies of God. The Apostles further make clear that obedience offered to evil and unfaithful Pastors — even though they exercise lawful authority in the Church — is contrary to God.

"Whatever title then men may hold, they are to be listened to only on the condition that they do not lead us away from obeying God. So we must examine all their traditions by the rule of the Word of God. We must obey princes and others who are in authority — but only in so far as they do not deny to God His rightful authority as the Supreme King, Father and Lord.... Such limits are to be observed in civil government. They ought to be of still greater importance, in the spiritual government of the Church.

"It is discourteous and shows a [very] malicious obstinacy, to raise a commotion about unnecessary matters. But...the Gospel of Christ is now in question.... For this to be suppressed through the prohibitions of men, is a crime.... Whoever therefore bids them be silent, is seeking...to make the grace of God of no effect....

“Woe to us for our cowardice -- if such a godless prohibition should stop our mouths! Now let all men see what confession God requires of them lest — when they keep silence out of consideration for men — they hear a dreadful voice proceed out of the mouth of Christ condemning their faithlessness....

"Let not those who are called to the office of teaching, be terrified by any threats of men or by any form of authority. But let them freely execute that office which they know to have been laid upon them by God. 'Woe be unto me,' says Paul, 'if I preach not the Gospel — because the duty has been entrusted to me!' I Cor. 9:16. And we must set this Commandment of God not only against the tyrannous commands of men, but against every obstacle that Satan often sets up in order to break off or impede the course of the Gospel.... The preaching of the Gospel is pleasing to God, and therefore must not be suppressed ---- on any account!"
* * * * * * *
After the Apostles therefore disobeyed the tyrannical edict of the Sanhedrin, they were again intimidated. Their enemies brought the Apostles "and set them before the Council. Then the High Priest asked them, saying: 'Did we not straitly command you that you should not teach in this name [of Jesus]? And behold, you have filled Jerusalem with your doctrine, and intend to bring this man's blood upon us!' Then Peter and the other Apostles answered and said, 'We ought to obey God rather than men!'"

Comments Calvin: "God sets men over us with power, in such a way that He keeps His own authority unimpaired. Therefore we must do the will of those who rule over us — to the extent that the authority of God is not violated. When the use of [such] power is legitimate, the comparison between God and man is inopportune.... God intends to be heard by means of men. Indeed, man is nothing else but an instrument of God. If a magistrate is carrying out his function properly, then anyone setting him in contrast with God will be inverting things — seeing that the magistrate is not out of step with God. Rather, the opposite rule will then hold good — in order to obey God, we must submit to His ministers, just as happens in the case of parents and masters.

"But as soon as governors lead us away from obedience to God, seeing that they enter into conflict with God impiously and boldly, they must be put in their place — so that God and His authority may stand supreme.... God does not think men worthy of titles of honour, in order that they may obscure His own glory! Therefore if a father, who is not content with his own station, tries to take from God the highest honour as Father — then he is a man, and nothing else. If a king or a prince or a magistrate extols himself so much that he minimises the honour and authority of God — he is nothing but a man!"
* * * * * * *
When Paul was on trial, the high priest there commanded those near him illegally to smite Paul on the mouth. Immediately Paul responded: "God shall smite you, you whitened wall! For, do you sit to judge me according to law — and yet command me to be smitten contrary to the law?"

Comments Dr. John Calvin: "Extraordinary madness was raging.... The high priest was possessed by that violent impulse to order Paul to be struck for no reason....

“What disgraceful and horrible laxity there was.... When Ananias, the president of the Council, ought to have been a restraining influence on the others by his gravity — he forgot all moderation, and incites them to violence and cruelty.... Disorderly and uncivilized behaviour reigned.... Paul cannot pass over that insult in silence, without at least expostulating with the high priest in grave terms and threatening him with God's punishment.... Here, Paul appeals to God's judgment ---- so that the high priest may not pride himself in his tyranny.... He makes the Law his excuse for occupying the judge's bench — then proceeds contrary to the Law!"

A little later, when on trial before Festus, Paul declared: "If I be an offender ---- or have committed anything worthy of death ---- I do not refuse to die. But, if none of these things be so of which these people accuse me — no man may hand me over to them! I appeal to Caesar!"

Here John Calvin rightly comments: "Certainly Paul had no fear of litigating under an unbelieving judge. For [as] an appellant, [he] is raising a new action. Let us therefore realize that God Who has instituted courts of law, also allows His own the legitimate use of them. Therefore those interpreters are wrong who suppose that the Corinthians [I Cor. 6:1f] are absolutely condemned by Paul because they invoke the help of the magistrate for the defence of their right.... He is there reproving an obvious fault ---- viz. that they could not put up with any injury...in their eagerness to go to law."

Governor Festus himself then wrote to King Agrippa that the accusers had cried out that Paul "ought not to live any longer." Yet extremely significantly, Festus then immediately added: "I found that he had committed nothing worthy of death."

However, what such works are truly good? Such good works and such evil works are quite undefinable — without reference to the Ten Commandments of the Moral Law (alias the rightly-understood Law of nature — alias the Law of nature's God.
Paul continues: "Do you then not desire be afraid of the authority? Practise that which is good, and you shall receive praise from it! For it is the minister of God toward you, for good. But if you do that which is evil — be afraid! For it does not wear the sword in vain. For it is the minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath upon him who keeps on practising evil.
“Therefore, you must needs be subject — not only for the sake of wrath but also for that of conscience. For this very reason, you also pay tribute. For they are God's ministers, continually attending to this very thing.

“Therefore, give back to all their dues: tribute to whom tribute is due; custom to whom custom; fear to whom fear; honour to whom honour [is due]! Do not owe anybody anything — except to love one another!”

Here, Paul is discussing "the authority of the magistrates," comments Calvin. "He calls them higher powers...rather than supreme (as if they possess the highest authority).... The reason why we ought to be subject to magistrates, is that they have been appointed by God's ordination..... To despise the providence of the One Who is the Author of civil government, is to wage war against Him.... He has appointed them for the just and lawful government of the world. Although dictatorships and unjust authorities are not ordained governments, yet the right of government is ordained by God for the well-being of mankind.
* * * * * * *
Dr. Calvin goes on: "The usefulness of rulers is that the Lord has designed by this means to provide for the peace of the good -- and to restrain the waywardness of the wicked. In these two ways the safety of mankind is secured. Unless the fury of the wicked is opposed and the innocent protected from their wilfulness -- there will [ultimately] be universal destruction....
“We have no reason for fearing the magistrate, if we are good.... The very desire to shake off or remove this yoke from oneself, is tacit proof of an evil conscience that is plotting some mischief. Paul, however, is here speaking of the true and natural duty of the magistrate.... Although those who hold power often depart from this, we must still render them the obedience which is due to rulers.

"Rulers, however, never abuse their power by harassing the good and the innocent — without retaining in their despotic rule some semblance of just government. No tyranny, therefore, can exist — which does not in some respect assist in protecting human society. Paul has also noted here the two parts considered also by philosophers to constitute the well-ordered administration of a state -- viz., the rewards given to the virtuous; and the punishments inflicted upon the wicked.

"Magistrates...are not to rule on their own account, but for the public good. Nor do they have unbridled power, but power that is restricted to the welfare of their subjects.... Since they have been chosen by God and do His business, they are answerable to Him. But the ministry which God has committed to them, has reference to their subjects. They have also therefore an obligation to them. Paul instructs individuals that it is by the divine kindness that they are defended by the sword of rulers -- against the injuries of the wicked.
* * * * * * *
Calvin continues: "A second part of the function of magistrates, is their duty to repress by force the insolent behaviour of the wicked who do not willingly allow themselves to be governed by laws — and to inflict punishment on their offences, as God's judgment requires. Paul explicitly declares that magistrates are armed with the sword not just for empty show, but in order to smite evildoers.
"By arming the magistrate, the Lord has also committed to him the use of the sword.... Whenever he punishes the guilty by death, he is obeying God's commands — [just] by exercising His vengeance. Those, therefore, who consider that it is wrong to shed the blood of the guilty — are contending against God....
"Magistrates...are to be obeyed not only on the grounds of human necessity, but also in order that we may obey God.... We must voluntarily take upon ourselves the submission to which our conscience is bound by the Word of God. Therefore even if the magistrate were unarmed and it were lawful to provoke and despise him with impunity, we should no more attempt to do this than if we saw the threat of punishment hanging immediately over us....
"Paul takes the opportunity of mentioning tributes [or taxes], and he bases his reason for paying tribute on the office of the magistrates.... It is their responsibility to defend and preserve uninjured the peace of the upright — and to resist the impious attempts of the wicked. They cannot do this, unless they are assisted by force and strong protection.
“Tributes, therefore, are paid by law — to support such necessary expenses.... They should remember that all which they receive from the people, is public property — and not a means of satisfying private lust and luxury. We see the uses for which Paul appoints the tributes which are paid — viz., that heads of state may be furnished with assistance, for the defence of their subjects."
* * * * * * *
Similar is Paul's injunction to Titus regarding the Christians of Crete. The Apostle told Titus to "remind to be subject of principalities and powers; to obey magistrates; to be ready to every good work; to speak evil of no man; [and] to be no brawlers."
Comments Calvin: "It is evident...that the Apostles had great difficulty in keeping the common people in subjection to the authority of magistrates and princes.... Paul now wishes to give a general admonition that they should calmly respect the order of civil government, obey the laws, and submit to the magistrates. For the subjection to princes and obedience to magistrates he requires — extends also to edicts and laws and other civil duties.

"What he immediately adds about being 'ready for every good work' may be applied to the same subject — as if he had said, 'All who do not refuse to live a good and honest life will willingly yield obedience to magistrates.' For since they have been appointed for the preservation of human life — he who desires their removal or shakes off their yoke is the enemy of equity and justice, and so devoid of all humanity.... He [Paul] is commending to us — kindness towards our neighbours in our whole life."
Paul also supplies an interesting piece of information right at the very end of his Epistle to Titus (3:13). "Bring Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their journey diligently — so that nothing be wanting to them."
Calvin comments on these words of Paul: "It is uncertain whether [by 'Zenas the lawyer'] he means a man skilled in the civil law, or in the Law of Moses. But since we can infer from Paul's words that he was a poor man needing outside help, the probability is that he belonged to the same order as Apollos — that is, an interpreter of the Law of God.... Such people were more often in want, than those who conducted legal cases in court." Even in our own twentieth century, such is still often the case.
* * * * * * *
Timothy was told by Paul that "the Law is good — if a man use it lawfully. Knowing this, that the Law is not made for a righteous man — but for the lawless and disobedient; for the ungodly and for sinners; for unholy and profane [persons]; for patricides [or those who are murderers of fathers] and murderers of mothers; for manslayers [or homicides]; for whoremongers; for them that defile themselves with mankind [either homosexually or lesbianly]; for menstealers [or slavetraders and kidnappers]; for liars; for perjured persons — and if there be any other thing that is contrary to sound doctrine."
Comments Calvin: "The Law is no enemy to just men.... Certain 'learned men'...argue that the Law has nothing to do with the sons of God who have been regenerated by His Spirit — since 'it was not for righteous men' that it was given. But the context...is taking for granted the common saying that ‘good laws spring from bad morals’ — and holds that God's Law was given to restrain the licentiousness of the ungodly....

"The question arises whether there is any mortal who does not belong to the category of those who are restrained by the Law. My answer is that Paul here calls 'righteous' not those who are absolutely perfect — since no such men will be found — but those who aim at what is good.... He declares that his Gospel, far from contradicting the Law, is its best confirmation.... Those who draw back from the Gospel, do not hold to the heart of the Law... . The Gospel which he preaches, is the only Gospel of God — so that all the fables he has been rebuking, are at variance with both Law and Gospel."
* * * * * * *
Paul then goes on to "exhort that...supplications, prayers, intercession and giving of thanks be made for all men — for kings and for all that are in authority — so that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and honesty. For this is good and acceptable in the sight of God our Saviour."
Here, John Calvin comments that "God has appointed magistrates and princes for the preservation of mankind. However much they may fall short of the divine appointment, we must not on that account cease to cherish what belongs to God ---- nor to desire its preservation.

"That is why believers, in whatever country they live, should not only obey the laws and the behests of the magistrates — but should also in their prayers commend their welfare to God. Jeremiah [29:7] said to the Israelites, 'Pray for the peace of Babylon; for in their peace, you shall have peace!'
“This is the universal teaching of Scripture.... He [Paul] adds a further inducement, by showing how this will profit us ourselves — and by enumerating the advantages which a well-ordered government provides.
"The first is a quiet life. For magistrates are armed with the sword, to keep the peace. Unless they restrained the boldness of wicked men — the whole world would be full of robberies and murders. Thus, the right way of keeping peace — is that every man should be given what is his own; and the violence of the powerful should be curbed.
"The second advantage, is the preservation of godliness. This is when [also] magistrates undertake to promote religion....
"The third advantage is the care of public gravity. For the benefit of magistrates, is that they prevent men from abandoning themselves to bestial impurity or [licentiousness or] shameful wantonness — and preserve modesty and moderation.... If therefore we have any concern for public tranquillity or godliness or decency — let us remember our duty to care for those through whom such important benefits are obtained!
* * * * * * *
"From this we conclude," explains Calvin,55 "that fanatics who wish magistrates to be abolished, are devoid of all humanity — and promote only cruel barbarism. What a difference between Paul (who says that for the sake of preserving justice and decency and of promoting religion, we ought to pray for kings) — and those men who say that not only kingly power but all government is opposed to religion! What Paul says, has the Holy Spirit as its Author — so the view of the fanatics must be from the devil.
"If the question is raised whether we ought to pray for [those] kings from whom we do not receive these advantages — my answer is, that we ought to pray that, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, they may begin to grant us those blessings they have up till now failed to provide. Thus we should not only pray for those who are already worthy, but we should ask God to make wicked rulers good.... Magistrates are appointed by God for the protection of religion and of the public peace and decency.... We ought to [then] consider magistrates as the ordinary means which He has ordained in His providence — for bestowing those other blessings.
"On the other hand, magistrates ---- and all who hold office in the magistracy ---- are here reminded of their duty. It is not enough for them to restain injustice by giving to each his own, and by maintaining peace — if they are not also zealous to promote religion and regulate morals by wholesome discipline. The exhortation of David that they should 'kiss the Son' (Ps. 2:12) — and Isaiah's word [49:23] that they should be nursing fathers to the Church — are very relevant. Thus, they have no cause to congratulate themselves — if they neglect to give their assistance in maintaining the worship of God....
"'For this is good and acceptable'.... The command...is expedient.... It is pleasing to God.... When we know that this is God's will — that should be the best of all reasons for doing it. By 'good' — he means what is right and lawful.... The will of God is the rule by which we must regulate all our duties."
Finally, the Apostle Peter assures us that by so doing, we will gradually — over the years — 'christianize' even pagan politics. He declares: "Be subject to every ordinance of man, for the Lord's sake — whether it be to the King [alias Caesar] as supreme; or unto Governors, as [those] sent by him for vengeance on evil-doers and for praise to them that do well. For so is the will of God — that by well-doing, you should put to silence the ignorance of foolish men" alias morally depraved persons.
Here, Dr. John Calvin comments: "Obedience towards magistrates is a part of honest behaviour.... By refusing [to submit to] the yoke of government, they [the Christians] would have given to the Gentiles no little occasion for reproaching them [viz. the cause of Christians].... All the magistrates were [then] Christ's adversaries.... They so abused their authority — that no vestige of God securing special reverence, was seen in them....

"[Yet] Peter reminds us that God, the Maker of the world, has not left the human race in a state of confusion.... He names 'Caesar' whose[Pagan Roman] Empire extended over all those countries mentioned at the beginning of the Epistle [I Pet. 1:1].... It is God Who girds kings with a sword; Who raises them on high; and Who transfers kingdoms as He pleases....
"Since God keeps the world in order by the ministry of magistrates, all those who detract from their authority are the enemies of mankind.... The good at least live under the care and protection of magistrates.... They are not exposed to the violence and injuries of the ungodly.... The wicked are not allowed to do what they like....
“Kings and other magistrates often abuse their power.... [Nevertheless,] however men may go astray -- the end fixed by God is unchanged.... God never allows His just order to be destroyed by the sin of men -- without some of its outlines remaining unobscured.... Some kind of government -- however deformed and corrupt it may be -- is still better and more beneficial than anarchy.
"The mouths of the foolish ought to be stopped. The phrase which he adopts, to put to silence the ignorance — though it may seem harsh on account of its novelty — does not, however, obscure the sense.... In depriving the unbelieving of understanding and reason, we conclude that a right understanding cannot exist without the knowledge of God. Therefore, however much the unbelieving may be satisfied with their own acuteness — and may even seem to others to be wise and prudent — yet the Spirit of God condemns them for their folly [alias their moral depravity].... He lays down the way in which the evil-speaking of the unbelieving is to be restrained — namely by well-doing" (alias the good works of Christians).
* * * * * * *
The ascended Christ is now enthroned in heaven. From there, He has poured out the blessing of His Spirit — to empower earthly Christ-ians now to promote His Kingdom — here on earth, as it is in heaven. Christ still works, and powerfully — also through the 'well-doing' alias the good works of His earthly saints (by their progressive keeping of the Decalogue with the indwelling power of His Holy Spirit). Consequently, through the vigorous execution of Christ's Great Commission in its full scope, His Biblical Law will yet become enshrined in the constitutions of every nation on Earth. For God's Law is the sceptre of King Jesus. Ps. 2:8-12; 22:27-28; 72:11; Isa. 2:2-4; Mic. 4:1-4 & 5:2-4; Dan. 7:13f,18,22,25-27; Mt. 6:10f; 28:19; I Cor. 6:1-5; 15:24-28; Rev. 11:15 & 15:3f & 17:14f.
King Solomon had predicted of the Messiah: "All kings shall fall down before Him; all nations shall serve Him." Here, Calvin comments: that "the Kingdom of Christ...was to be extended from the rising of the sun to the going down thereof [hence from East to West]....

“The King chosen by God...will obtain so complete a victory over all His enemies, far and wide, that they shall come humbly to pay Him homage.... The whole World will be brought into subjection to the authority of Christ.... The nations will be convinced that nothing is more desirable — than to receive from Him laws and ordinances."
Isaiah (2:2-4f) prophesied that all nations would flow into the Christian Church — when she would send forth God's Law in the latter days. Here, Calvin comments that this "fullness of days began at the coming of Christ. It flows on in uninterrupted progress.... The Prophet here shows that the boundaries of His Kingdom will be enlarged, so that He may rule over various nations.... Christ is not sent to the Jews only, so that He may reign over them [alone] — but so that He may hold His sway over the whole World."

Micah predicted that "in the last days...the Law shall go forth from Zion" — that is, from the Christian Church. Here, Dr. John Calvin comments that "it was Christ Who introduced the renovation of the World.... Nations shall come to God. It is now easy to see...that the whole World should be subject to Him.... Not a few nations but many shall assemble to serve Him....
"Many nations would come to the temple of the Lord.... The Jews came to the temple not only to worship but also to be instructed in the Law of God.... But what does our Prophet say? A Law shall go forth from Zion — that is, it shall be proclaimed far and wide.... He will send forth His Voice to the extreme limits of the Earth.... This sceptre would be sent far abroad by God the Father — so that Christ might have under His rule all those nations which had previously been aliens."
* * * * * * *
In His Great Commission, Jesus commands His Ministers of the Word to go forth into all the World and to preach the Gospel to every human being. For they are, before the end of history, yet to turn all nations into His disciples and to teach them to observe all things whatsoever He has ever commanded.
Here Dr. John Calvin comments: "The nature of the apostolic function is clear from the command 'Go ye into all the World and preach the Gospel to every creature!' Mark 16:15. No fixed limits are given them, but the whole World is assigned to be reduced under obedience to Christ — so that, by spreading the Gospel as widely as they could, they might everywhere erect His Kingdom....

"By proclaiming the Gospel everywhere, they should bring all nations to the observance of the faith." The latter emphasis — the emphasis "all nations" — is that of John Calvin himself.
For the ascended Jesus Christ, through the Spirit-empowered good works of His earthly children, is even now trampling down His earthly enemies. The Saviour Himself will have finished subduing them — when "the kingdoms of this World have become that of our Lord and of His Christ. Then He shall keep on reigning for ever and ever."
Meantime: "Just and true are Your ways, You King of nations! Who shall not fear You, O Lord, and glorify Your Name? Because You alone are holy. For all nations shall come and worship before You!"

“This abrogation, however, does not at all apply to the precepts which teach us the right way to live. For Christ confirms and sanctions these, and does not abrogate them. The proper part of the Law which is removed, is the curse [incurred because of transgressing the Law] — to which all men who are beyond the grace of Christ, are subject."
So men are to do good works — by endeavouring to keep God's Holy Law. Of course, as Calvin observes, "men are not justified by works" — by their own works. Yet "we do not deny that the observance of the Law — is true righteousness."
Calvin explains further: "Righteousness comprehends all the duties of equity — in rendering to every one his due. Next follows godliness — which separates us from the pollutions of the world and connects us with God in true holiness."

Here, Calvin connects 'righteousness' and 'godliness' not to the 'reason' of fallen man. He connects it specifically to a Christian's striving to live by God's Ten Commandments.
* * * * * * *
"Indeed," Calvin insists, "if we would test our reason by the Divine Law, which is a perfect standard of righteousness — we should find out how blind it [our reason] is, in many respects. It certainly attains not to the principal heads in the First Table — such as: trust in God; the ascription to Him of all praise in virtue and righteousness; the invocation of His name; and the true observance of His Day of Rest. Did ever any soul — under the guidance of natural sense [alias unaided reason] — imagine that these and the like constitutes legitimate worship of God?"
"As to the precepts of the Second Table, there is considerably more knowledge of them — inasmuch as they are more closely connected with the preservation of civil society. Even here, however, there is something defective [in Natural Law]. Every [ordinary] man of 'understanding' deems it most absurd to submit to [what is perceived to be] unjust and tyrannical domination — provided it can by any means be thrown off.... But the Lord [Jesus], condemning this too lofty spirit [in unregenerate mankind], prescribes to His people — that patience which [unregenerate] mankind deems infamous."
So, though imperfectly, Natural Law still operates — even after man has become totally (though not absolutely) depraved. Observes John Calvin: "God...has been pleased...to manifest His perfections in the whole structure of the Universe, and pleased daily to place Himself in our view — so that we cannot open our eyes, without being compelled to behold Him....

“None, however dull and illiterate, can plead ignorance as their excuse.... Ps. 104:2.... Heb. 11:3.... Ps. 19:1.... Rom. 1:20."

* * * * * * *
Calvin continues: "But herein appears the shameful ingratitude of man.... At this day..., the earth sustains on her bosom many monster minds — minds which are not afraid to employ the seed[s] of Deity imprinted in human nature as a means of suppressing the Name of God.... How few of us there are who, in lifting our eyes to the heavens or looking abroad on the various regions of the earth, ever think of the Creator.... How many who imagine that they [the seeds of Deity imprinted in human nature] are the casual results produced by the blind evolutions of the wheels of chance.... Hence the immense flood of error with which the whole World is overflowed."
Further: "Each nation had adopted a variety of fictions.... But [just as men] when aided by glasses begin to read distinctly — so Scripture, gathering together the impression of the Deity..., shows us the true God clearly.... It is necessary to apply to Scripture — in order to learn the sure marks which distinguish God as the Creator of the world from the whole herd of fictitious gods....

“How prone the human mind is, to lapse into forgetfulness of God! ... How readily inclined to every error..., corrupted by the presumptuous audacity of men! ... God, foreseeing the inefficacy of His impress imprinted on the fair form of the universe — has given us the assistance of His Word....

"We must go, I say, to the Word [Isa. 8:20 & II Tim. 3:15-17].... No daily responses are given from heaven, and the Scriptures are the only records in which [the true Lord] God has been pleased to consign His truth to perpetual remembrance.... The very things [now] contained in the Two Tables [of Ex. 20] are, in a manner, dictated to us by that internal law which...is...written and stamped on every heart." Gen. 2:9-18; Eccl. 7:29; Rom. 1:20f; 2:14-16; Eph. 4:24-29.
"The Ten Commandments of the Law" — explains Calvin — "which God originally[!] prescribed, is still in force.... But man, being immured in the darkness of error, is scarcely able by means of that 'Natural Law' to form any tolerable idea of the worship which is acceptable to God....
“Therefore, as a necessary remedy both for our dullness and our contumacy, the Lord has given us His Written Law. This, by its sure attestations, removes the obscurity of the 'Law of Nature' — and also, by shaking off our lethargy, [it] makes a more lively and permanent impression on our minds."
To Calvin, "the Law is perpetual" — inasmuch as "the rule of just and pious living even now retains its force." This is so even after "we are delivered from the yoke of bondage [and] from the curse" of law-breaking — and even after "the coming of Christ has put an end to its ceremonies." For "this is the peculiar blessing of the New Covenant — that the Law gets [re-]written on men's hearts."

* * * * * * *
Having thus recognised the division of the Law into a First and a Second Table, Calvin gives the following classification of the various Mosaic Laws. He does so, under the ten heads of the Decalogue.
The First Commandment requires the worship of the Triune Lord Jehovah — alone. Ex. 20:3 and Dt. 5:7. Here, Calvin gives a detailed discussion of Leviticus 18 to 19 and of Deuteronomy 6 etc. Thereafter, under the Ceremonial Supplements of the First Commandment, he deals with: the Passover (Ex. 12); the sanctifying of the first born (Ex. 13); the payment of atonement tribute (Ex. 30); the Nazirite vow (Num. 6); the offerings of the first fruits (Dt. 26); the purification of women (Lev. 12); and also the confinement and purification of lepers (Dt. 24 and Lev. 14).

There, he also deals with: the pollutions arising from 'issues' or personal effluxes (Lev. 15); physical defects which exclude men from the tabernacle (Dt. 23); various general purification laws (Num. 19); and the disposal of waste matter (Dt. 23). Under the same head, he further discusses: prohibited mixtures (Dt. 22); clean and unclean foods (Lev. 20 and 22); accidentally polluted things (Dt. 14); mixed marriages (Dt. 21); and the various judicial supplements (Dt. 13 & 17 to 20, Ex. 22, and Num. 10).
Explains Calvin further: "The purport of this Commandment is that the Lord will have Himself Alone to be exalted in His people.... The duties which we owe to God...seem to admit of being not improperly reduced to four heads." These heads are: adoration, trust, invocation, and thanksgiving.

In this regard, John Calvin also gives us the following definitions. "Adoration...[is] the veneration and worship which we render to Him when we do homage to His majesty.... Trust is secure resting in Him.... Invocation may be defined [as fleeing or] the betaking of ourselves to His promised aid..... Thanksgiving is the gratitude which ascribes to Him the praise for all our blessings.... It is not enough to refrain from other gods! We must, at the same time, devote ourselves wholly to Him!"
* * * * * * *
The Second Commandment requires that the true God be worshipped in the correct way. Ex. chs. 20 & 25 to 30 & 34; Num. ch. 8; Dt. chs. 4 & 12 to 16. Here, Calvin gives a detailed discussion: of priesthood laws (Ex. chs. 28 to 29; Lev. 6:22; Num. chs. 3 to 35; and Dt. chs. 17 & 31); of tithing obligations (Num. ch. 18 & Dt. ch. 18); and of oblations (Lev. ch. 24). He also discusses offerings (Ex. ch. 29 & Num. chs. 28 to 29) and the yearly atonement (Lev. chs. 1 to 7 & 16 & 22; Num. ch. 15, and Dt. ch. 23). Then, under the Civil Supplements of the Second Commandment, he deals with the destruction of idolatrous edifices and practices. Ex. chs. 23 & 34; Dt. chs. 7, 17, 23 & 25.
As Calvin explains: "This Commandment...curbs the licentious daring which would subject the incomprehensible God to our senses — or represent Him under any visible shape.... Every visible shape of Deity which man devises, is diametrically opposed to the Divine Nature."

This does not, of course, prohibit the manufacture or appreciation of religious artifacts not purporting to represent nor to suggest the Deity Himself. Yet it does prohibit crucifixes — alias crosses with a three-dimensional effigy of 'Christ'[?!] superimposed on them. Indeed, the prohibition applies against the religious use of even plain crosses without such effigies.
Observes Calvin in his 23rd & 123rd Sermons on Deuteronomy (4:15-18 & 21:22f): “It is not for us to counterfeit God.... The complaint that God makes, is this: ‘Does wood or stone resemble Me? As for them, they be but dead and corruptible things. Does it not well appear, then – that dishonour and wrong is offered to My Being, whenever men go about...to represent Me under such shapes? ... Is it not apparent that men are worse than mad, when they will needs take upon them[selves] to shape out God’s Being -- seeing that no shape can be made of their own souls [as images of God]; which are nothing, in comparison of Him?....
“God will not have any manner of image made of Him.... ‘If you will needs make some puppet to represent Me – is it not as good as a defacing of My glory, and a spiting of Me to the uttermost of your power?’ ... When we have shaped out a stone or a piece of wood – and made it a nose, ears and all the rest of man’s limbs – yet it has no feeling as all.... There is no likeness between God and any of all the shapes that can be made to represent Him.... Seeing that even blind men knew this -- or rather that God did cast forth those words by their mouth – is it not a horrible condemnation to such as term themselves Christians, if they take not heed to it? ... He has told us that it is not lawful for us to have any image of Him to represent Him....
“God has forbidden two things. First, the making of any picture of Him – because it is a disguising and falsifying of His glory, and a turning of His truth into a lie. That is one point. The other is that no image may be worshipped But now, do not the Papists worship images? ... They paint and portray ‘Jesus Christ’ Who (as we know) is not only man but also God manifested in the flesh.... Should we have portraitures and images whereby only the flesh may be represent? Is it not a wiping away of that which is chiefest in our Lord Jesus Christ, that is...His divine Majesty? Yes! And therefore, wheresoever a crucifix stands...in the Church -- it is all one as if the Devil had defaced the Son of God. You see, then, that the Papists are destitute of all excuse.... They abuse their puppets and pictures....
“It is not by the virtue of the wood [of crosses], that we be so blessed before God by means of our Lord Jesus Christ -- as the Papists brutishly bear men in hand. For when they hear the ‘cross’ spoken of -- they be tied to it with a devilish superstition. Yes, and with so brutish a superstition...that they should leave Jesus Christ and fall to worshipping of a piece of wood....
“But when the Scripture speaks of the curse which our Lord Jesus bare in His body to set us free withall -- it sets before us two things. First, that when we look upon the wood, we should take it as a token of the curse, and thereat conceive a terror in ourselves -- for the thing of itself is horrible. This much concerning the wood. And therefore, as for all the crosses which the Papists set up -- what betoken they else, but that they bring God’s curse upon themselves? ... Look how many crosses there are in the Popedom – so many records are there that cry out for God’s vengeance against those wretched unbelievers, which content not themselves with the amends that was made for them when our Lord Jesus Christ endured the curse in Himself which was due unto us!”
For the Lord God says (in Dt. 5:8f): "You shall not make for yourself any graven image or any likeness of anything that is in Heaven above or that is on Earth beneath.... You shall not bow yourself down to them, nor serve them!"
Here, Dr. Calvin comments: "Idolaters in vain endeavour to elude this...by their foolish cavils.... Amongst the Papists, that trifling distinction is commonly advanced that only latreia and not douleia is prohibited.... They make a childish endeavour at evasion, when they pay only the honour of service to pictures and statues....
"[However,] Moses first of all comprehends generally all the forms and ceremonies of worship. [He] then adds immediately afterwards the word ’aabad -- which properly means 'to serve'....
"Unbelievers have never been carried away to such an extent of folly — as to adore mere statues or pictures. They have always alleged the same pretext which now-a-days is rife in the mouths of the Papists — viz. that not the image itself was actually worshipped, but that which it represented."
Commenting on Ex. 26:1f, Dr. John Calvin further adds: "Ridiculous it is of the Papists to infer...that churches would be empty and unsightly — unless they are adorned with images." Indeed, commenting on Dt. 31:9, Dr. Calvin further adds: "In the Papacy, when they loudly bellow out the Scriptures in an unknown tongue [viz. Latin] — they do but profane God's Name.
Also authorities in the Early Church Fathers — and some even just prior to the Middle Ages — clearly maintained that especially Christ's Church should never transgress His Second Commandment. Explains Calvin: "It was a Father [the 400 A.D. Epiphanius in his Epistle to Jerome] who said, 'It is a horrid abomination to see in Christian temples a painted image either of Christ or of any saint.'

“Nor was this pronounced by the voice of [just] a single individual. But an Ecclesiastical Council [the 305 A.D 7th Council of Elvira at its canon 36] also decreed, 'Let nought that is worshipped, be depicted on walls!' [However,] very far are they [the Renaissance-Age Romanist Church Leaders] from keeping within these boundaries — when they leave not a corner without images."

Calvin concludes: "Let Papists, then, if they have any sense of shame, henceforth desist.... It is well-known what kind of monsters they obtrude upon us as 'divine'.... What are the pictures or statues to which they append the names of 'saints' — but exhibitions of the most shameless luxury or obscenity? Were any one to dress himself after their model — he would deserve the pillory! Indeed, brothels exhibit their inmates more chastely and modestly dressed — than churches do images intended to represent virgins....
"Paul declares that by the true preaching of the Gospel, Christ is portrayed and in a manner crucified before our eyes. Gal. 3:1. Of what use, then, were the erection in churches of so many crosses of wood and stone, silver and gold, if this doctrine were faithfully and honestly preached — viz. Christ died that He might bear our curse upon the tree, that He might expiate our sins by the sacrifice of His body, wash them in His blood and, in short, reconcile us to God the Father? From this one doctrine, the people would learn more than from a thousand crosses of wood and stone!"
* * * * * * *
Calvin adds: "Yet I am not so superstitious as to think that all visible representations of every kind are unlawful.... Sculpture and painting are gifts of God. What I insist for, is that both shall be used purely and lawfully.... We think it unlawful to give a visible shape to God — because God Himself has forbidden it.... Still more unlawful must it be, to worship such a representation instead of God — or to worship God in it.
"The only things therefore which ought to be painted or sculptured, are things which can be presented to the eye.... Visible representations are...historical, which give a [narrative] representation of events — and pictorial, which merely exhibit bodily shapes and figures. The former are of some use for instruction....
“The latter...are only fitted for amusement.... Yet it is certain that the latter are almost the only kind which have hitherto been exhibited in churches.... The exhibition was not the result of judicious selection, but of a foolish and inconsiderate longing."
"Let us here consider whether it is expedient that churches should contain representations of any kind — whether of events, or human forms.... Let us remember that for [some] five hundred years during which religion was in a more prosperous condition and a purer doctrine flourished — [the edifices of] Christian churches were completely free from visible representations.... It appears to me more unbecoming...to admit any other images than those living symbols which the Lord has consecrated by His Own Word: I mean Baptism and the Lord's Supper." See the Calvinistic Heidelberg Catechism, Q. & A. 97f.
* * * * * * *
The Third Commandment requires reverence for God's Name, His attributes, and all His works. Ex. 20:7 and Dt. 5:11. Here, John Calvin also deals with false swearing (Lev. ch. 19) — and vows (Dt. chs. 23 & Lev. ch. 27 & Num. ch. 30). In his Political Supplements to the Third Commandment, Calvin deals with the punishment for blasphemy (Lev. ch. 24).
Explains Calvin: "It is not sufficient to abstain [merely] from perjury.... Great sin is committed in the present day.... The Name of [the Lord] God is everywhere profaned — by introducing it, indiscriminately, in frivolous discourse.... The Commandment of the Lord, however, stands.... The penalty also stands.... Special vengeance will be executed on those who have taken the Name of God in vain."

On Ex. 20:7, Calvin comments: "In order that God may procure for His Name its due reverence, He forbids its being taken in vain — especially in oaths.... Christ teaches that God's Name is comprehended in the heavens, the earth, the temple, the altar — Mt. 5:34 — because His glory is conspicuous in them.... God's Name then is taken in vain not only when any one abuses it by perjury, but [also] when it is lightly and disrespectfully adduced in proof of frivolous and trifling matters."
On Dt. 23:21, Calvin further comments: "The Papists would have all vows kept, without exception.... [However,] nothing can properly be vowed to God — except what we know to be pleasing to Him.... "To obey is better than sacrifice," I Sam. 15:22.... If a Jew had vowed that he would sacrifice a dog, it would have been sacrilege to pay that vow — since it was forbidden by God's Law." Gen. 8:20; Lev. 11:2f; Dt. 23:18; Isa. 65:4; 66:3; 66:17; Mal. 1:7f; Phil. 3:2; Rev. 22:15. "But what is done in the Papacy? Monks and nuns and priests bind themselves to perpetual celibacy!"
The Fourth Commandment, requires the sanctification — of the Sabbath. Ex. 20:8f & Dt. 5:12-15. Here, Calvin includes a discussion also of Lev. ch. 19 and Ex. ch. 31. Indeed, in his Supplements to the Fourth Commandment, -- he also deals with the ceremonial septennials and jubilees. Ex. ch. 23; Lev. chs. 23 to 25; Deut. ch. 16.
Even in the garden of Eden — Calvin explains — "first, God rested. Then He blessed this rest — so that in all ages it might be sacred among men.... God consecrated every seventh day — to rest.... This is...the common employment not of one age or people only, but of the whole human race.... It was commanded to men from the beginning — so that they might employ themselves in the worship of God. It is right that it should continue — to the end of the world."

On Ex. 20:8f Calvin comments regarding Christians, that "we have an equal necessity for the Sabbath — with the ancient people [the Israelites].... The [first] hallowing of the Sabbath — was prior to the Law [Ex. 20].... What Moses had before narrated — that they were forbidden to gather the manna on the seventh day [Ex. 16] — seems to have had its origin from a well-known and received custom." Ex. 5:5-17 cf. 7:25.

"It is not credible that the observance of the Sabbath was omitted, when God revealed the rite of sacrifice to the holy patriarchs." Gen. 2:1-3 cf. 3:15-21; 4:3f; 7:4-10f; 8:6-12; 8:20f; Job 1:2-5; 2:13; 42:8; Gen. 12:7-8; 18:18-19; 26:4-5; 29:27-28; 50:10. "But what in the depravity of human nature was...almost obsolete with the race of Abraham — God re-new-ed in His Law." Ex. 20:8f cf. Dt. 5:12f.
Calvin states: "Let us not think that the things which Moses says about the Sabbath-day, are needless for us" Christians today! Ps. 19:8-10 & Mt. 5:18. "The Apostle in the fourth [chapter] to the Hebrews applies the things that were spoken about the Sabbath-day — to the instruction of Christians and of the new Church.... We must refrain from our own business — which might hinder us from minding God's works.... If we spend the Lord's Day in making good cheer, in playing and gaming — is that a good honouring of God? No! Is it not a mockery? Yes, and a very unhallowing of His Name!

"The shop-windows are shut in on the Lord's Day, and men do not [then] travel as they do on the other days.... Let us see if...Christians charge themselves as they ought to do!... A great number think to have [Sunday] the Lord's Day most free to follow their own business — and reserve that day for the same purpose as though there were none other day for them to appoint, all the week long.... It seems to them, they have nothing else to do but to think upon their business and to cast up their accounts concerning this and that matter.... They make that an occasion of withdrawing themselves further off from God." Neh. 13:15-22; Isa. 56:2-7; 58:13-14; Jer. 17:19-27.
* * * * * * *
Calvin goes on:90 That day [the Sabbath]...was ordained to withdraw us from all earthly cares and affairs, so that we might give ourselves wholly to God. Furthermore, we must understand that the Lord’s Day was not appointed only for the hearing of Sermons ---- but to the end that we should apply the rest of the time to praying to God....
“The Lord's Day, then, must serve us for a tower to mount up into; to view God's works afar off — as a time wherein we have nothing to let [or hinder] us or to keep us occupied, but that we may employ all our wits to consider the benefits and gracious gifts that He has bestowed upon us.... If the Lord's Day be spent not only in games and pastimes full of vanity, but also in things quite contrary to God...; if the holy order which God ordained to bring us to Him be broken after that fashion, so as men think they have not kept holy the Lord's day — is it any wonder, if men [over-work themselves and/or] play the beasts [or act like draught-animals] all the week [there]after?
"In respect of men's rawness, and by reason of their slothfulness, it is necessary to have one special day dedicated wholly thereunto. It is true that we be not bound to...keep the same day that was appointed to the Jews. For that was Saturday.... The day was changed -- because Jesus Christ in His resurrection did set us free [on Easter Sunday].... That was the cause why the [Sabbath] day was shifted [from Saturday to Sunday]. But yet must we observe the same order of having some day in the week [as our day of rest]....
“Let us retain still the outward order, so far as is meet for us — that is...forbearing our own affairs and worldly businesses, so that we may intend wholly to the minding of God's works and occupying ourselves in the consideration of the good things that He has done for us!... When we have bestowed the Lord His Day in praising and magnifying God’s Name, and in minding His works -- let us show all the week after, that we have profited in the same!...
“Now we have to mark what is said in Moses’ text. ‘Six days you shall labour’ -- says the Lord.... You have six days free and whole to do your business and affairs in. Seeing then that I deal so courteously with you, as to require but one day of seven – is it not too great an unthankfulness if you complain of that time as though it were misbestowed?.... Who should say you were so churlish and niggardly, as to grudge Me the seventh part of your time?
“I give you your whole life!... Why then should I not have one day of seven, in which every man shall cease from his own business -- so that you shall not be entangled in any worldly care, but that you may have leisure to think upon Me?”
* * * * * * *
Commenting on Isa. 58:13, Calvin remarks: "Nothing can be more pleasing or acceptable to God, than the observation of the Sabbath and sincere worship.... Men do wrong if, laying aside the Commandments of God, they esteem highly those things which are of no value.... [The Lord] God so highly recommends in the whole Scripture the observation of the Sabbath.... Because Christ died and rose again..., we have a continual sabbath."
So too, commenting on Jer. 17:22f, Calvin further declares: "Isaiah, in the fifty-eighth chapter, teaches us with sufficient clearness what the design of the Sabbath is — even that the people should cease from their own pleasure. For it was to be a day of rest in which they were truly to worship God — and to leave off pursuing any of the lusts of their own flesh.
"Even heathen writers, whenever they speak of the Sabbath, mention it as the difference between the Jews and the rest of the world. It was, in short, a general profession of God's worship when they [the Jews] rested on the seventh day. [However,] when they [the seventh-century B.C. Judeans] now regarded it as nothing, by carrying their burdens and violating their sacred rest [Jer. 17] — it was doubtless nothing less than wantonly to cast away the yoke of God, as though they openly boasted that they despised whatever He had commanded. There was then, in the violation of the Sabbath, a public defection from the Law....
"To sanctify the Sabbath day is to make it different from the other days.... They ought not then to have done their own concerns on that day, as on other days. For it was a day consecrated to God.... In the observance of the Sabbath, therefore, is briefly included the whole of religion.... It was the same as though God said that He would by all means be gracious to them, if only they observed the Sabbath — that is, if they with a pure heart devoted themselves to His service."
Explains Calvin yet further: "There is no Commandment the observance of which the Almighty more strictly enforces.... You see the singular honour which it holds among all the precepts of the Law.... The Sabbath never shall be completed — before the arrival of the last day.... 'The Sabbath of the Lord your God, on it you shall not do any work: you, nor your son nor your daughter, nor your man-servant nor your maid-servant — so that your man-servant and your maid-servant may rest, as well as you!' Deut. 5:14....

"The Early Christians substituted what we call the Lord's Day for the Sabbath." Lk. 4:16f; 23:56f; Mt. 28:1f; Mk. 16:1f,9f; Jh. 20:1,19,26; Acts 2:1; 20:6-7; I Cor. 16:1-2; Heb. 4:8f; 10:25; Rev. 1:10. We must diligently attend on our religious assemblies, and duly avail ourselves of those external aids which tend to promote the worship of God."
First here in order, comes the Fifth Commandment and its pre-eminent promises. Eph. 6:2; Ex. 20:12b; Dt. 5:16. It asks for requires respect for all one's human superiors — whether parental, marital, educational, political, employmental, social or ecclesiastical. Ex. 20:12; Deut. 5:16; Eph. 6:1-9. Obviously, it also implies respect for one's ancestors (pateres) and for one's fatherland (patria) — for one's own kith and kin. Rom. 9:3-5; 10:1; 11:1. Clearly, it also requires the corresponding duties of all superiors toward their inferiors. Eph. 5:25 to 6:4 and Col. 3:19 to 4:1.
Calvin here discusses Lev. ch. 19. He then gives Supplements on the punishments for defying all of the various duly-constituted authorities. Ex. ch. 21; Deut. chs. 16, 21 & 22.
Explains Dr. John Calvin: "We are ordered to obey our parents only in the Lord.... The submission yielded them should be a step in our ascent to the Supreme Parent.... Hence, if they transgress the Law — they deserve not to be regarded as parents, but as strangers attempting to seduce us from our obedience to our true Father. The same holds in the case of rulers, masters and superiors of every description."

This therefore applies also to our ecclesiastical superiors. Thus, if ever even a General Assembly of the Christian Church should require us to transgress God's Word — such as by decreeing that even godly Ministers with conscientious objections must themselves participate in ordaining women as Elders or as Ministers of the Word and Sacraments etc. — we must refuse to do so.
Calvin too had to face that very issue. Against such practices, he quoted: I Cor. 3:5; 4:1f; 14:24-27; I Tim. 2:11-15; 3:1-5; 5:17 & Heb. 5:4. Citing precisely those very Scriptures, he wrote to the Ministers of Mompelgard: "If the authorities try to establish the practice of baptism by women, this must be resisted — even unto blood!"

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Next, under the Sixth Commandment against murder (Ex. 20:13 and Dt. 5:27), Calvin discusses Lev. ch. 19. Geneva’s genius then gives the Ceremonial Supplements of the Sixth Commandment. There, he deals with ritual atonement for manslaughter (Dt. ch. 21) — and the forbidden drinking of blood (Dt. ch. 12 and Lev. ch. 17).
Then, in his Political Supplements of the Sixth Commandment — he deals with the different legal penalties for murder, manslaughter and wounding. Ex. ch. 21; Lev. ch. 24; Dt. ch. 17. He also deals with: injuries caused through negligence (Dt. ch. 22); kidnapping (Dt. ch. 24); the method of capital punishment (Deut. ch. 21); and corporal punishment (Dt. ch. 25). Indeed, he further deals with: personal responsibility (Dt. ch. 24); rules of warfare (Dt. ch. 20); oppression (Dt. ch. 23); humane treatment of animals (Dt. ch. 22 and Ex. ch. 23); and cities of refuge (Num. ch. 35).

Explains Dr. Calvin: "Man is...the image of God.... We must hold the person of man sacred.... If you do not, according to your means and opportunity, study to defend his safety — by that inhumanity, you violate the Law." This is why kidnapping children — like permanently enslaving unwilling freemen — should be capital crimes. Gen. 9:5-6; Ex. 21:16; Dt. 24:7. Note that this prohibits slave-trading (Gen. 36:26f & Rev. 18:12f); but not the humane use of slave labour, wherever legal (Ex. 21:2-8 & Eph. 6:5-9).
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Very interesting is the Biblical remedy for unreformable youthful thugs. Deuteronomy 21:18f (like 13:6-13f & 20:13f cf. Lev. 20:9f) clearly, albeit obliquely, presupposes that full ethical responsibility (in matters such as adultery, cruelty and idolatry) starts only at puberty. Indeed, the passage prescribes capital punishment for hopelessly incorrigible juvenile delinquents – even when still in their 'teens.
It is dealing with the case of a "stubborn and rebellious son" ---- who has consistently and irresponsibly disobeyed the voice of his father or mother. He has often been chastened by them, but he has habitually ignored their teaching. Over the years, he has degenerated so much, that he is now both a drunkard and a glutton ---- a wine-swilling, work-shy lout; an incorrigible, riotous criminal; a lifethreateningly-violent adolescent; an accountable teenage monster.
At Deut. 21:18, the King James Version describe him as "stubborn and rebellious" ---- and Calvin there describes him as "disobedient." At Deut. 21:20, Calvin says his own parents publically denounce him as "a rioter and a drunkard" ---- and the King James says they openly brand him as "a glutton" (especially sexually). Clearly, this is no suckling or toddler ---- but a person expected to behave like an adul,t and fully responsible for his own actions.
Not just his father alone, but both his stern yet now-powerless father and his loving and more-lenient mother both bring in an official complaint ---- and present their incorrigibly delinquent son to the City Elders. If the latter now arraign and then find him guilty of a capital crime ---- all of the mature male men of his city (’ansheey ‘iyro), on behalf of the Lord and for the

Publisher's Corner

Friday, January 11, 2008

Clingman, Eugene: The Christian Life is War

Lee, Rev. Prof. Dr. F.N.: CALVIN ON THE LAW